Asian American Theology

Chao, David C. “Asian American Theology.” In T&T Clark Handbook of Modern Theology. Edited by Philip G.
Ziegler and R. David Nelson. London: T&T Clark, 2025.

Asian American theology is at a pivotal moment in its development. The field is ripe for articulating central ideas, issues, and questions that animate it as a research program. This chapter examines the literature in Asian American theology, focusing on its current state and future directions. The goal is to identify the plurality of methodological decisions, outline a range of potential options on various issues, and identify central questions the field should seek to address.

Modern theology, in both its Protestant and Catholic forms, has oscillated between Enlightenment claims of universal truth and postmodern assertions of local, embodied knowledge. But we should move beyond this binary and situate Asian American theology within the broader context of global Christian discourse in order to reconcile two realities: the universal body of Christ with its catholic beliefs and the manifestation of this catholic church in local contexts.

Asian American theologies are part of a broader diasporic faith discourse and community with ties to both Asia and the U.S. These diasporic communities illuminate the interplay between universal and local expressions of Christianity, challenging modern theology to move beyond simplistic dichotomies. Migration studies, diasporic studies, and World Christianity help make evident what is true for all forms of Christian theology (modern and otherwise): namely, that catholic Christian beliefs and practices are always deeply influenced by and influence particular cultural, social, ethnic, and political contexts. Integrating these insights, modern theology can better understand how Christian doctrine navigates the interrelations of faith, cultural belonging, and social identity, fostering a richer and more nuanced comprehension of its own development and relevance across diverse contexts.

Over the past thirty years, Asian American theology has showcased notable diversity, stemming from the varied experiences of Asian American communities.¹ This field critically engages identity, culture, and faith to address the unique challenges faced by Asian American Christians. Key themes in the current state of Asian American theology include: the contextualization of theology, new concepts from Asian culture, the role of migration and identity, liberation and social justice, the significance of community and intergenerational dynamics, intersectionality and feminist perspectives, and the need to develop historical consciousness through Asian American studies.

Contextualization of Theology

A fundamental theme in Asian American theology is contextualization, which involves interpreting Christian faith and practice within the specific cultural and historical contexts of Asian American communities. Scholars such as Peter Phan and Jonathan Tan highlight the importance of engaging with Asian philosophies, cultural practices, and religious traditions to develop a theology that resonates with Asian American experiences. This intercultural approach challenges the dominance of Eurocentric theological paradigms and seeks to construct a theology that is both deeply rooted in Asian cultural heritage and responsive to the unique social location of Asian Americans.²

Daniel Lee similarly emphasizes the importance of contextual engagement with the particularities of Asian American experiences. He introduces the Asian American Quadrilateral (AAQ), a heuristic tool that maps Asian American identities and experiences across four themes: Asian heritage, migration experience, American culture, and racialization. Lee offers critical reflection on the influence of White American evangelicalism on Asian American Christians, advocating for a dynamic and contextual theology that recognizes and affirms the unique cultural contexts of Asian American believers.³

New Concepts from Asian Culture

A significant strategy in Asian American theology involves incorporating concepts from Asian cultures and philosophies to construct a more resonant Christian framework for Asian Americans. This approach enriches theological discourse by drawing on principles like Taoism’s yin and yang or the Korean concept of han. By integrating these cultural elements, theologians challenge and complement traditional Western paradigms, offering holistic perspectives and constructing new, re-signified doctrines.

For example, Young Lee Hertig’s ‘The Tao of Asian American Belonging’ integrates Taoist principles, such as yin and yang, to address identity and community within Asian American Christian contexts. This promotes a balanced, inclusive approach that challenges Western dualistic paradigms and critiques hierarchical and patriarchal structures. Likewise, Andrew Sung Park introduces the Korean concept of han to address profound experiences of pain and injustice, advocating for a theology that includes both sin and the han of victims. These strategies aim to foster a more holistic approach to reconciliation and salvation, emphasizing social justice and the church’s role in healing and transformation. Together, Hertig and Park’s work illustrates how integrating Asian cultural elements can enrich theological discourse and address the specific needs of the Asian American community.⁴

Migration, Identity, and Spatial Metaphors

The experience of migration from Asia to the U.S. profoundly shapes discussions of Asian American identity that inform Asian American theology. One dominant topic is the focus on hybrid identity: migration involves displacement, economic challenges, and cultural in betweenness that creates identities that are neither fully Asian nor fully American.⁵ This betwixt and-between existential condition influences theological perspectives, emphasizing themes of hybridity and the ongoing negotiation of identity.⁶ Theologians like Jung Young Lee propose marginality as a theological paradigm, viewing it as both a hermeneutical principle and of the substance of Christian faith.⁷

Liberation and Social Justice

It is difficult to overestimate the significance of liberation and social justice within Asian American theology. A wide range of Asian American theologies analyze social conditions, interpret them through a theological lens, and apply theological insights to practical actions aimed at liberation and justice. These themes are deeply rooted in the experiences of migration, racialization, and systemic oppression, highlighting the need for both inculturation and critical engagement with power structures. It calls for a theology that resonates with Asian cultural and religious traditions while actively addressing the socio-political and economic dimensions of justice and liberation.⁸

Community and Intergenerational Dynamics

Community plays a crucial role in Asian American Christianity and its theology, serving as a space for maintaining cultural practices, providing social support, and facilitating the assertion of ethnic identity. Churches and religious organizations are cultural hubs that sustain ethnic identity and serve as sites of resistance against societal norms that marginalize Asian Americans. This communal aspect of faith is emphasized by Fumitaka Matsuoka, who portrays churches as providing moral authority and frameworks of meaning, belonging, and resistance. Additionally, Matsuoka explores the dynamics between different generations within Asian American communities, highlighting the tensions and continuities in religious practices and beliefs.⁹

Intersectionality and Feminist Perspectives

‘Off the Menu’ is an anthology from the Pacific, Asian, and North American Asian Women in Theology and Ministry (PANAAWTM) group that explores intersectional and feminist perspectives within theological discourse. The book critically examines the homogenization of Asian identities in theology, advocating for a nuanced recognition of intra-Asian differences. It addresses the enduring impacts of colonialism and racism, proposing transnational and postcolonial analyses to reinvent spiritual traditions in response to globalization. Methodologically, the book calls for interdisciplinary approaches and critical reinterpretations of texts to address the complexities of identity and globalization. Through this comprehensive approach, ‘Off the Menu’ contributes to a liberative and empowering feminist theology that integrates faith with praxis and maintains a commitment to justice and liberation.¹⁰

Need for Historical Consciousness through Asian American Studies

Wong Tian An emphasizes the need for historical consciousness which retrieves and critically engages the unique struggles of Asian Americans. Wong highlights those early theologians like Roy Sano and Paul Nagano—influenced by experiences such as Japanese American incarceration (1942-46)—who developed theologies centered on suffering and marginality.¹¹ Wong argues that contemporary Asian American theology has focused more on constructing identity without adequately deconstructing intersecting power structures like race, gender, class, and nation. Wong broadly engages the field of Asian American studies to heighten historical awareness in the service of opposing systemic oppression, stressing the importance of praxis and self-critical analysis in the struggle to address ongoing oppression and marginalization.¹²

Asian American theology is a vibrant and evolving field that addresses the unique cultural, historical, and social experiences of Asian American communities with these several predominating themes at its heart. By centering the voices and experiences of Asian Americans, this theology challenges dominant paradigms within Anglo-European Christian discourse and contributes to a more inclusive and contextually aware understanding of Christian faith.

Several developments animate the future direction of Asian American theology: first, situating it within World Christianity, particularly through themes like migration and diaspora; second, theorizing the relationship between theological concepts and the diverse communities they serve, focusing on how Asian American theology can empower Asian Americans to navigate ethnic, regional, and generational diversity; third, emphasizing the creation and use of source materials, such as historical archives, ethnographic research, and oral histories to connect theology with the lived realities of Asian American Christians; finally, developing a discursive tradition that fosters mutual recognition and accountability across various perspectives thus advancing the discourse of Asian American theology within the broader socio-political landscape of the United States.

World Christianity and Transpacific Migration

How does migration shape Asian American Christianity and its theology? Migration brings global Christian dynamics into interaction with local communities, positioning Asian American Christianity and theology within the broader discourse of World Christianity. This challenges the overdetermination of Asian American theology by U.S.-based and European dominant narratives of Christendom.¹³

Transpacific migration disrupts the White-Black racial binary predominant in antiracism discussions by introducing different accounts of racialization in the U.S. It also complicates the political binary between conservatives and liberals by acknowledging alternative political commitments tied to homeland politics in Asia, which do not align neatly with U.S. political paradigms. Additionally, it contests the overdetermined narratives of American religious life shaped by the mainline-evangelical binary, highlighting how these religious culture wars are not a direct part of the history of Asian Christians in the U.S.

Framing Asian American theology within the broader discourse of World Christianity lets different stories be told about the faith and practice of Asian Christians in the U.S. Their theologies do not simply confirm or disprove the racial, political, and theological assumptions regnant within U.S. and European discourses which are often determined by transatlantic migration stories centering Christendom. Rather, a global diasporic lens helps provide a narrative surplus for stories of Asian Christians in the U.S. and their theologies.

The Relation of Concepts and Communities

How are theological concepts related to Asian American communities of faith and practice? Asian American theology can draw inspiration from the origins of Asian American studies in 1968 at San Francisco State College, sparked by the Third World Liberation Front. This movement emerged from the broader activist context of the 1960s—including anti-war, civil rights, women’s, environmental, and free speech movements—driven by students frustrated with the lack of representation and relevance in their education. Their demands for a curriculum addressing the histories, cultures, and communities of marginalized groups led to the creation of ethnic studies.¹⁴

The students’ efforts highlighted the need to shift education to serve communities rather than the elite. The ethos of Asian American studies—research and teaching by, for, and about Asian Americans—serves as a model for Asian American theology.¹⁵ This approach emphasizes community empowerment and a decolonized perspective, elevating voices and addressing local issues from within the community.

At the heart of Asian American theology is the relationship between theological concepts and how communities talk about God. This ensures theology’s relevance and effectiveness, requiring theologians to navigate the complexities of community self-understanding and external perception. Key challenges include addressing the diversity among Asians in the U.S.—ethnic (East, South, Southeast Asian), regional (West Coast, East Coast, South, Midwest), generational (first, second, third+ generation) differences, along with class, gender, and sexuality—without Asian American Christians and their communities. This theology should continue to empower  and serve the community, maintaining its fidelity to Scripture and supporting social witness.

Source Materials and the Future of Asian American Theology

What sources and source materials make theology Asian American? The question of sources and source materials is crucial in Asian American theology. Typically, modern systematic theology relies on Scripture, tradition, reason, and experience as sources for doctrinal construction. However, to counter the dominance of Anglo-European discourse, Asian American theologians turn to indigenous Asian cultural sources such as Taoism, Confucianism, and other Asian philosophical systems. This approach challenges Anglo-European theological discourse and roots Asian American theology in indigenous cultural sources, defining its unique identity.

However, this cultural strategy has limitations and highlights the need for diverse source materials for theological construction. It is essential to identify source materials that represent the varied contexts, identities, and communities within Asian American Christianity. Key questions arise about the adequacy of these materials to reflect the complex stories of diverse Asian Christian faith communities in the U.S. Do we have sufficient and accessible historical archives of multiple generations of Asian Christian believers? Do we have a broad range of oral history interviews and ethnographies of post-1965 Hart-Celler Act Asian American Christians? How does Asian American theology connect these empirical communities with imagined ones?

To provide more adequate descriptions of Asian American Christians and their communities, it is essential to identify and utilize historical archives of the earliest Asian Christian communities in the U.S., collect oral histories to capture the stories, experiences, and theological reflections of Asian American Christians, and conduct ethnographic studies to continue describing religious practices, rituals, and community life. These efforts help uncover nuances often overlooked in dominant religious and theological scholarship. Collaborative efforts are needed to compile, analyze, and integrate these sources into theological discourse, ensuring they are accessible and contribute to a richer understanding of Asian American Christianity.

By developing and utilizing accurate and representative source materials, Asian American theology can better ground its reflections in the lived realities of the communities it serves, enhancing its relevance and ensuring its growth and development.

Developing a Discursive Tradition for Asian American Theology: A Research Program

Can the diversity within Asian American Christianity—across empirical and imagined communities—advance a shared research program? We propose developing a discursive tradition for Asian American theology, engaging explicitly with the faith and practices of Asian American Christians. The concept of ‘discursive tradition,’ as articulated by Talal Asad and Saba Mahmood, provides a robust framework.¹⁶ Applying their work to the Christian context, linking historical and contemporary practices with reflection on the divine economy of the triune God, a discursive tradition becomes more than mere symbols or fixed cultural prescriptions. It represents a mode of engagement with the past that informs present and future understanding. For Asian American Christians, this means integrating historical religious practices with contemporary realities. By examining how communities use the Bible, theological commentaries, and liturgy, theologians can reflect on how God works in and through these communities.

Developing this discursive tradition requires a structured research program that involves: (1) Narrating and analyzing the history of Asians in the U.S. and the religious communities they formed, including their theological contributions and engagement with other Christian traditions; (2) Empirical and ethnographic examination of the current socio-political challenges faced by Asian American Christians discerning how these challenges shape their religious practices; and (3) Studying the everyday social practices of Asian American Christians—including rituals, worship practices, and community activities—and how these practices embody and transmit a discursive tradition. Furthermore, Asian American communities need educational programs and resources to foster critical self-reflection. This theological curriculum should incorporate historical and contemporary perspectives, encourage community dialogue, and train leaders to facilitate these conversations.

By pursuing these elements, Asian American theologians systematically explore the historical and contemporary dimensions of their religious traditions. They foster critical self reflection on the divine economy and empower their communities to navigate and transform the socio-political landscape. This approach highlights the agency and power of Asian American Christians in contributing to their religious traditions and broader theological discourse.

With the resurgence of anti-Asian hate during COVID and the rise of Christian nationalism in the U.S., Asian American theology is at an inflection point marked by critical reflection on what the Spirit of Christ is doing in and through Asian American Christians and their communities. This chapter examines central themes in the current state of the field and identifies trajectories for the future of Asian American theology.

Among key future trajectories for Asian American theology is the development of a discursive tradition rooted in both historical consciousness and contemporary realities. This requires creating and using existing historical archives, expanding ethnographic research, and recording oral histories to ground theological reflections in the lived experiences of Asian American Christians and their communities. Such efforts will foster a biblically faithful and impactful theological practice that resonates with the communities it serves.

The continued development and recognition of Asian American theological contributions are vital for enriching the broader theological landscape and promoting social justice and reconciliation. As Asian American theologians navigate their identities and contexts, their work has the potential to transform their own communities and offer valuable insights to the global theological community. This ongoing dialogue and collaboration will ensure that Asian American theology remains a vibrant and dynamic field, contributing to a more inclusive and contextually aware understanding of the Christian faith.

Brock, Rita Nakashima, et al. editors. Off the Menu: Asian and Asian North American Women’s Religion and Theology. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2007. Choi, Ki Joo. Disciplined by Race: Theological Ethics and the Problem of Asian American Identity. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2019.
Floyd-Thomas, Stacey M. and Anthony B. Pinn, editors. Liberation Theologies in the United States. New York: New York University Press, 2010.
Foskett, Mary F. and Jeffrey K. Kuan, editors. Ways of Being, Ways of Reading: Asian American Biblical Interpretation. St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 2006.
Hertig, Young Lee. The Tao of Asian American Belonging: A Yinist Spirituality. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2019.
Joh, Wonhee Anne. Heart of the Cross: A Postcolonial Christology. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006.
Kao, Grace and Ilsup Ahn, editors. Asian American Christian Ethics: Voices, Methods, Issues. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2015.
Kim, Grace Ji-Sun. The Holy Spirit, Chi, and the Other: A Model of Global and Intercultural Pneumatology. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
Lee, Daniel D. Doing Asian American Theology: A Contextual Framework for Faith and Practice. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2022.
Lee, Jung Young. Marginality: The Key to Multicultural Theology. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1995.
Lee, Sang Hyun. From a Liminal Place: An Asian American Theology. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2010.
Matsuoka, Fumitaka. Out of Silence: Emerging Themes in Asian American Churches. Cleveland, OH: United Church Press, 1995.
Park, Andrew Sung. The Wounded Heart of God: The Asian Concept of Han and the Christian Doctrine of Sin. Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1993.
Phan, Peter C. Christianity with an Asian Face: Asian American Theology in the Making. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2003.
Phan, Peter C. and Jung Young Lee, editors. Journeys at the Margin: Toward an Autobiographical Theology in American-Asian Perspective. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1999.
Sano, Roy and Daniel Lee, editors. Theologies of Asian Americans and Pacific Peoples: A Reader, 1976: PACTS Reader. Claremont, CA: Claremont Press, 2023.
Tan, Jonathan Y. Introducing Asian American Theologies. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008. Tran, Jonathan. Asian Americans and the Spirit of Racial Capitalism. New York: Oxford University Press, 2021.
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1. For helpful surveys of the field of Asian American Christian theology, please consult these  essays: SueJeanne Koh, ‘Asian American Christian Theology: Topographies, Trajectories, and  Possibilities,’ Religion Compass 14:10 (2020): 1-14; Andrew Sung Park, ‘Asian American  Theology’ and Grace Ji-Sun Kim, ‘Asian American Feminist Theology’ in Liberation Theologies  in the United States, 115-30, 131-48.
2. Phan, Christianity with an Asian Face; Tan, Introducing Asian American Theologies.
3. Lee, Doing Asian American Theology.
4. Hertig, The Tao of Asian American Belonging; Park, The Wounded Heart of God. See also Joh,  Heart of the Cross and Kim, The Holy Spirit, Chi, and the Other. Note that there are varying  degrees of dissent with the use of Asian cultural symbols to ground Asian American identity in  doing Asian American theological scholarship. See for example Gale A. Yee, ‘Yin/Yang Is Not  Me: An Exploration into an Asian American Biblical Hermeneutic,’ in Ways of Being, Ways of  Reading, 152–63 and Paul Chang-Ha Lim, ‘Beyond Han: A Korean American Evangelical  Theologian’s Reflections,’ in Conversations: Asian American Evangelical Theologies in  Formation, eds. D. J. Chuang and Timothy Tseng (L2, 2006).
5. Phan and Lee, editors, Journeys at the Margin.
6. Phan, Christianity with an Asian Face.
7. Lee, Marginality and Lee, From a Liminal Place. The spatial metaphors of ‘marginality’ and  ‘liminality’ for both Jung Young Lee and Sang Hyun Lee function identically as a form of power  analysis and motif for theology.
8. Phan, Christianity with an Asian Face; Wong, An Asian American Theology of Liberation.
9. Matsuoka, Out of Silence.
10. Brock, et al., Off the Menu.
11. See the PACTS (Pacific and Asian American Center for Theology and Strategies) Reader  originally edited by Roy Sano in the 1970s as an important document of the early stages of Asian  American theology: Sano and Lee, editors, Theologies of Asian Americans and Pacific Peoples:  A Reader, 1976.
12. Wong, An Asian American Theology of Liberation.
13. See David C. Chao, ‘The 1517 Project and World Christianity: Migration and the Uses of  Doctrine,’ International Bulletin of Mission Research 48: 3 (2024): 399–426, esp. 417-18.
14. The Asian American movement coined the racial term ‘Asian American’ for solidarity across  Asian ethnic groups and with other racial groups; the movement was also crucial in the creation  of Asian American studies. For theological engagements with Asian American racialization, see  Choi, Disciplined by Race and Tran, Asian Americans and the Spirit of Racial Capitalism.
15. Russell Jeung, ‘Lessons from 50 Years of Asian American Studies for Asian American  Theology,’ Public Lecture, Princeton Theological Seminary, 27 February 2020, 46:45,  https://youtu.be/65d4DqgcmDQ?si=Pt9mNmDUjD9kZeTX. See in Kao and Ahn, editors, Asian  American Christian Ethics, 11-13.
16. Talal Asad, ‘The Idea of an Anthropology of Islam,’ Qui Parle 17, no. 2 (2009): 1–30; Saba  Mahmood, Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject (Princeton: NJ:  Princeton University Press, 2012), esp. 113-117. A discursive tradition involves foundational  texts and practices of reasoning, pedagogy, and argumentation that form a field of statements and  practices defined by norms recognizing what is sayable and doable within the tradition.  Mahmood emphasizes that tradition creates sensibilities and embodied capacities (reason, affect,  volition) necessary for its reproduction and is deeply connected to power relations influencing the interpretation and authority of canonical sources. See also claims about ‘traditioning’ in Kao  and Ahn, editors, Asian American Christian Ethics, 13-15.